Light in the Dark Ages

The history of Third Stream Christian groups from Constantine to the Reformation is one that has attracted renewed interest in recent years.

There is increasing evidence that Europe during these centuries contained many such churches and that it is only the difficulty in accessing the original archive material that has contributed towards the view that there was little evangelical witness in the centuries before Luther.

The following samples give a hint of the depth of evangelical spiritual life that existed, not only among individuals but among whole congregations in the centuries traditionally known as the Dark Ages:

• In his Sermons Against Heretics, Eckbert of Schonau condemns those "weavers...who say that the true service of Christ and the true faith are to be found nowhere but in their conventicles, which they hold in cellers and weaving establishments and similar subterranean places."

• Pope Innocent III addressed a gathering of bishops in the city of Metz in 1199 when he related the following:

"Our brother the bishop of Metz tells us that in his diocese and in your city a great many lay-folk, both men and women,...have had French translations made of the Gospels, the Epistles of Paul, the Psalms...which they read together and preach from in their clandestine conventicles....resisting to their face the priests who would instruct them, arguing that they find in their books much better instruction."

• Before and during the Reformation, the "Christian Brethren" held regular meetings to celebrate the Lord's Supper with a full meal in the weavers' guild house in Saint Gall, Switzerland.

• In Brugge, in 1349, "a sect came up called the Cross-brothers....they did not adore the holy sacrament as it was raised aloft at the mass, nor did they show reverence to the priesthood....many were in the ban of the pope because of the Cross-brothers and the Lollards, persons who had fed them or had conversed with them."

• In 1145, reports of what appears to be a fully functioning evangelical church emerge from the city of Liege:

"In this heresy...they say that in baptism sins are not remitted; they consider the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ to be foolishness; that by the imposition of the pontiff's hand nothing is conferred; that no-one receives the Holy Spirit unless good works are in evidence."

• A century before the Reformation, the Dean of Notre Dame in Arras claimed that, "one third of Christendom if not more has attended illicit Waldensian conventicles and is at heart Waldensian."

All of the above are referenced in Leornard Verduin's illuminating work, The Reformers and Their Stepchildren (Dissent and Nonconformity)

The Origins of Donatism

During the waves of state-sponsored persecution suffered by the churches during the reigns of Diocletian and Galerius in the late third and early fourth centuries, Christians in North Africa found themselves particular targets.

Following these persecutions, disputes arose within the North African Church about the status of those who had lapsed or denied their faith and who were now seeking restoration to fellowship within the church. Of particular concern was the position of those who had apparently betrayed other Christian believers while facing persecution themselves.

The appointment of Caecilian as bishop of Carthage (in modern day Tunisia) brought these controversies to a head. Regarded by many as a man of shallow moral character, the most damning allegation made against him was that he had been a betrayer of Christians during the time of persecution.

In 312, a council of African bishops declared the appointment of Caecillian invalid and appointed Majorinus as bishop in his place. This action inevitably resulted in conflict with the Catholic Church and the apparently-converted Constantine, Emperor of Rome, declared Caecillian the legitimate bishop.

When Majorinus died, his place was taken by Donatus, who refused to recognise the decision of the Emperor and who quickly found himself at the head of a movement that was in opposition to the Roman Catholic Church - an opposition that lasted several decades.

The so-called Donatists in fact came to be a reforming force with a distinct view of the nature of the church and are considered by many as a third-stream Christian movement.

Although an examination of their distinct beliefs will follow, an initial focus on some of the obvious issues produced by the Donatist controversy include:

1. The difference between charismatic and institutional leadership. Much initial controversy focused around the claim that a duly-appointed bishop could confer grace by virtue of his office. Donatism rejected this, claiming that holding office alone was of no value without Christlike character.
2. The relationship between the church and the state. Donatism saw the church as essentially separate from the world, not reliant on state support or patronage. Constantine's involvement in matters of church government was, therefore, seen as an unwelcome development.
   
3. The importance of discipleship and holiness in the church - thus a rejection of the emerging monastic movement with its emphasis on different levels of holiness among Christians.